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XTAG analysis
Figure:
Predicative trees: nx0N1 (a), nx0Ax1 (b) and nx0Pnx1 (c)
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The XTAG grammar provides a uniform analysis for the copula, raising verbs and
small clauses by treating the maximal projections of lexical items that can be
predicated as predicative clauses, rather than simply noun, adjective and
prepositional phrases. The copula adjoins in for matrix clauses, as do the
raising verbs. Certain other verbs (such as consider) can take the
predicative clause as a complement, without the adjunction of the copula, to
form the embedded small clause.
The structure of a predicative clause, then, is roughly as seen in
((89))-((91)) for NP's, AP's and PP's. The XTAG trees corresponding
to these structures9.3 are shown in
Figures 9.1(a),
9.1(b), and 9.1(c),
respectively.
(88)0(88
- (89)
- [S NP [VP N ...]]
(89)0(89
- (90)
- [S NP [VP A ...]]
(90)0(90
- (91)
- [S NP [VP P ...]]
The copula be and raising verbs all get the basic auxiliary tree as
explained in the section on auxiliary verbs (section 20.1).
Unlike the raising verbs, the copula also selects the inverted auxiliary tree
set. Figure 9.2 shows the basic auxiliary tree anchored by
the copula be. The <mode> feature is used to distinguish the
predicative constructions so that only the copula and raising verbs adjoin onto
the predicative trees.
Figure:
Copula auxiliary tree: Vvx
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There are two possible values of <mode> that correspond to the
predicative trees, nom and prep. They correspond to a modified
version of the four-valued [N,V] feature described in section 9.2.3. The
nom value corresponds to [N+], selecting the NP and AP predicative
clauses. As mentioned earlier, they often pattern together with respect to
constructions using predicative clauses. The remaining prepositional phrase
predicative clauses, then, correspond to the prep mode.
Figure 9.3 shows the predicative adjective tree from
Figure 9.1(b) now anchored by upset and with the
features visible. As mentioned, <mode>=nom on the VP node prevents
auxiliaries other than the copula or raising verbs from adjoining into this
tree. In addition, it prevents the predicative tree from occurring as a matrix
clause. Since all matrix clauses in XTAG must be mode indicative (ind)
or imperative (imp), a tree with <mode>=nom or <mode>=prep must have an auxiliary verb (the copula or a raising verb)
adjoin in to make it <mode>=ind.
Figure:
Predicative AP tree with features: nx0Ax1
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The distribution of small clauses as embedded complements to some verbs is also
managed through the mode feature. Verbs such as consider and prefer select trees that take a sentential complement, and then restrict that
complement to be <mode>=nom and/or <mode>=prep,
depending on the lexical idiosyncrasies of that particular verb. Many verbs
that don't take small clause complements do take sentential complements that
are <mode>=ind, which includes small clauses with the copula
already adjoined. Hence, as seen in sentence sets ((92))-((94)),
consider takes only small clause complements, prefer takes both
prep (but not nom) small clauses and indicative clauses, while feel takes only indicative clauses.
(91)0(91
- (92)
- She considers Carl a jerk .
?She considers Carl in a foul mood .
She considers that Carl is a jerk .
(92)0(92
- (93)
- She prefers Carl a jerk .
She prefers Carl in a foul mood .
She prefers that Carl is a jerk .
(93)0(93
- (94)
- She feels Carl a jerk .
She feels Carl in a foul mood .
She feels that Carl is a jerk .
Figure 9.4 shows the tree anchored by consider
that takes the predicative small clauses.
Figure 9.4:
Consider tree for embedded small clauses
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Raising verbs such as seems work essentially the same as the
auxiliaries, in that they also select the basic auxiliary tree, as in
Figure 9.2. The only difference is that
the value of <mode>
on the VP foot node might be different, depending on what types of
complements the raising verb takes. Also, two of the raising verbs take
an additional tree, Vpxvx, shown in Figure 9.5, which
allows for an experiencer argument, as in John seems to me to be happy.
Figure:
Raising verb with experiencer tree: Vpxvx
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Raising adjectives, such as likely, take the tree shown in
Figure 9.6. This tree combines aspects of the auxiliary
tree Vvx and the adjectival predicative tree shown in
Figure 9.1(b). As with Vvx, it adjoins
in as a VP auxiliary tree. However, since it is anchored by an
adjective, not a verb, it is similar to the adjectival predicative
tree in that it has an
at the V node, and a feature value
of <mode>=nom which is passed up to the VP root indicates
that it is an adjectival predication. This serves the same purpose
as in the
case of the tree in Figure 9.3, and forces another
auxiliary verb, such as the copula, to adjoin in to make it <mode>=ind.
Figure:
Raising adjective tree: Vvx-adj
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Next: Non-predicative BE
Up: The English Copula, Raising
Previous: Auxiliary + Small Clause
XTAG Project
1998-09-14